Comments to: crs@uvm.eduReviewed as of 4/20/98
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A PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL
This model is typical of the approach followed by organizations
that train people in problem solving and creative thinking. It can
be applied to program design and also to trouble shooting when you
have a program in operation that isn't up to par.
There are several bits of wisdom--problem solving principles--that
provide the cornerstones of this approach:
þ Problems aren't always what they seem to be at first
glance. The way you state the problem directs your
attention to one type of solution or another, so it's
important to play with different wordings of the problem
and discover which seem most fruitful.
þ No one method can be guaranteed to lead to a solution.
Sometimes it helps to clarify the ideal (goal); sometimes
it helps to state what the present situation is;
sometimes it helps to explore different interpretations
of "What causes this problem?"
þ There is probably no such thing as a totally new idea.
For instance, the pocket calculator is an invention that
puts together several earlier inventions, such as the
integrated circuit chip and the light-emitting diode
display. So, once you have refined your problem
statement, it's useful to inventory the existing methods
or inventions that may contribute to a solution. You
will still be faced with the creative challenge of
combining ideas into a new product or program, perhaps
unlike anything that has ever been tried before.
þ The first solution is rarely the best. Generate lots of
possible solutions, then choose several for refinement.
With these principles as background, consider the version of the
problem-solving process on the next page.
===============================================================
REPRINTED FROM: Planning for a Change, by Duane Dale and Nancy
Mitiguy, University of Massachusetts, Citizen Involvement Training
Project, 1978.
PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS (COLUMN ONE)
1. State problem situation in broad terms.
2. Analyze the nature and causes of the
problem situation.
3. Describe ideal situation...and present situation
4. State alternative versions of the problem.
5. Choose one version of the problem (or a
combination) to pursue.
6. Inventory existing or known solutions.
7. Generate new solutions (probably a
synthesis of existing solutions).
8. State guidelines for choosing ("decision
criteria") and select best solution.
9. Implement and document.
EXAMPLE (COLUMN TWO)
Organization has no money in treasury.
No dues; no fund-raising events; inflation
caused cost overrun on last project.
Ideal: $2,000 in bank; adequate money for
next project.
Present: No money; projects not being
developed because they don't seem affordable.
No money; projects aren't being developed;
morale is low; opportunities are being
missed.
Opportunities are being missed because morale
is low, and therefore new projects are not
being developed.
Hold fund-raising events; develop low-budget
or zero-budget projects, identify
opportunities and decide how to pursue them
(should also build morale); ask the group
"What would we be doing if we had $2,000 in
the bank?"
Hold an organizational meeting to explore
opportunities, low-budget project ideas, etc
(mixture of strategies from step number 6).
We want activities that will bring in money
and encourage people to get acquainted, so
we'll hold a benefit dinner-dance.
Do it! Keep a log, journal, or updated
timeline to keep track of the process and its
progress.
> Force-Field Analysis
The technique described here provides a way to analyze the nature
and causes of a problem situation. Kurt Lewin, a social
psychologist, developed the notion that people and organizations
operate in a "field" of forces--positive and negative influences--
that affect the likelihood of achieving one's goals.
For example, a team of climbers headed for the peak of Mt. Everest
might map out the various forces they had to deal with in the
following way:
Negative forces: Positive forces:
------------------------------ ------------------------
the cold good equipment
thin air (difficulty breathing) maps and charts
dangers (falling, etc.) past climbing experience
"Force-field analysis" provides a graphic summary of the direction
and extent of these forces. For a citizen group, force-field
analysis is a way for the group to identify "restraining" (negative)
forces and "supporting" (positive) forces, evaluate the possible
strengths of each, and to decide what can be done to maximize the
supporting forces and minimize the restraining ones.
The whole organization might get involved in the force-field
process, or a small sub-group, or perhaps an individual, but a
variety of perspectives really helps with this one. It won't seem
easy the first time through, so plan to give it at least an hour.
Force-field analysis can actually be helpful at several points in
the planning process:
þ during analysis, as a way to decide "what you are up
against"
þ during "idea generation," when trying to decide on new and
innovative programs (since mapping out the positive and
negative forces can suggest directions)
þ as a way of choosing a program, because a "map" of forces
may help you decide whether you have the resources
necessary to overcome restraining forces and succeed
It's time to lay out the steps and provide an example. Note that
each step provides some useful information whether or not you go on
to complete the rest of the process.
STEP 1: State the purpose, goal, or objective toward which you are
working.
This may be the broadest purpose of your organization, or an
objective on the way to a specific program, depending on how far
your planning has progressed. Also identify the present situation.
The group's problem is how to move from the present situation toward
the goal.
STEP 2: Identify the forces that will both help and impede you in
attaining the goal.
Line off your paper as shown in the example below and write in the
labels "restraining forces" and "supporting forces" and begin to
brainstorm items for each list. Suggestion: start with the
restraining forces and ask yourselves the question, "What blocks our
progress?" Then go on to the supporting forces, asking, "What
forces acting around us will help us succeed?"
STEP 3: Identify the strength of each force.
Draw in arrows which indicate, by their length, how strong the
forces are.
STEP 4: Brainstorm ways to eliminate the restraints and increase the
supporting forces.
In this case you are looking for active measures the group could
take. Suggestion: it may help to focus your view by identifying
forces that are easiest to change, hardest to change, and those that
are outside your control. The group might get energized by tackling
the hard forces first (you might even find you can do something
about the forces "outside your control"). The possible actions can
be written on the "supporting forces" side, preferably in a color
different from the one used before. If you have developed several
program ideas already in your program planning, be sure to put them
on your "map."
STEP 5 (optional): List available organizational resources that
might help you in Step 4.
At the bottom of the "Supporting Forces" column, list your resources
in terms of time (person-hours, days), funds, support from other
groups, etc.
STEP 6 (optional): Distribute resources among the most promising
active measures.
Suggestion: it's often essential to counteract the most serious
restraining forces before you start to increase the supporting
forces.
STEP 7: Decide whether you have enough resources to succeed.
Do "Supporting Forces" plus "Active Measures Chosen" outweigh the
restraining forces? If not, you will need either to:
þ choose different action steps
þ generate more resources
þ abandon the purpose
Comments to: crs@uvm.edu
Reviewed as of 4/20/98